| Non-Rationalised History NCERT Notes, Solutions and Extra Q & A (Class 6th to 12th) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 6th | 7th | 8th | 9th | 10th | 11th | 12th | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Chapter 10 New Empires And Kingdoms
This chapter explores the rise of new empires and kingdoms after the decline of earlier political structures. Historical sources provide insights into the rulers of these periods, their achievements, and the administration of their territories. Some rulers, like Samudragupta, were known for diverse talents, including musical skills, challenging traditional perceptions of kingship solely focused on warfare.
Prashastis And What They Tell Us
We learn about rulers from this period, such as Samudragupta of the Gupta dynasty, through inscriptions. A significant type of inscription is the prashasti, a Sanskrit word meaning 'in praise of'. Prashastis are compositions praising rulers, often detailing their virtues, achievements, and victories. While prashastis were composed for some earlier rulers (like Gautamiputra Shri Satakarni, Chapter 9), they became more prominent from the time of the Gupta dynasty. Samudragupta's prashasti is inscribed on an Ashokan pillar at Allahabad and was composed by Harishena, a poet and minister in his court.
Samudragupta’s Prashasti
Samudragupta's prashasti provides a detailed and often exaggerated account of his qualities and military exploits. Harishena praises him as a skilled warrior, a victorious king, learned, and an excellent poet. He is even compared to gods. The prashasti is written in long, elaborate sentences, highlighting Samudragupta's physique covered with scars from various weapons, testifying to his prowess in battle. This description not only portrays the king as a formidable warrior but also suggests the types of weapons and the nature of warfare during that era.
Samudragupta's coins also reveal other aspects of his personality, such as being depicted playing the veena, indicating an interest in music.
Map 7 (page 105) is based on information from Samudragupta's prashasti, illustrating the different regions and rulers he interacted with. Harishena describes Samudragupta's policies towards four types of rulers:
- Rulers of Aryavarta: Nine rulers in the area shaded green (northern India). Samudragupta defeated and annexed their kingdoms, making them part of his empire.
- Rulers of Dakshinapatha: Twelve rulers in south India (capitals marked with red dots). Samudragupta defeated them but allowed them to continue ruling after they surrendered.
- Inner Circle of Neighbouring States: Regions like Assam, coastal Bengal, Nepal, and gana sanghas in the northwest (marked in purple). These rulers brought tribute, followed his orders, and attended his court, indicating a subordinate but not fully annexed status.
- Rulers of Outlying Areas: Possibly descendants of Kushanas and Shakas, and the ruler of Sri Lanka (marked in blue). These rulers submitted to Samudragupta and offered daughters in marriage, indicating a relationship based on political alliance and perhaps symbolic submission.
Prayaga (Allahabad), Ujjain, and Pataliputra (Patna) were important centers of the Gupta rulers (Map 7). The difference in policy towards Aryavarta (annexation) and Dakshinapatha (defeat and restoration) might be attributed to the greater strategic or economic importance of north India, or the logistical challenges of directly administering the distant southern kingdoms.
Genealogies
Prashastis often provide **genealogies** (lists of ancestors) of the ruler. Samudragupta's prashasti mentions his great-grandfather, grandfather, father, and mother. His mother, Kumara Devi, belonged to the Lichchhavi gana. His father, Chandragupta I, was the first Gupta ruler to adopt the grand title of maharaj-adhiraja ('king of great kings'), a title also used by Samudragupta. His earlier ancestors are mentioned with the simpler title of 'maha-raja', suggesting that the Gupta family's importance grew gradually over time.
Ordering the titles by importance: raja < maha-raja < maharaj-adhiraja.
Samudragupta's lineage is included in the genealogies of later Gupta rulers, such as his son, Chandragupta II. We learn about Chandragupta II from inscriptions and coins. He is known for leading an expedition to western India and overcoming the last of the Shakas. Later accounts suggest his court was known for its learned individuals.
Vikram Samvat
The Vikram Samvat era, beginning in 58 BCE, is traditionally associated with the Gupta king Chandragupta II (who adopted the title Vikramaditya) as a mark of his victory over the Shakas.
Harshavardhana And The Harshacharita
Information about some kings comes from biographies. Harshavardhana, who ruled nearly 1400 years ago, is one such ruler known through a biography. His court poet, Banabhatta, wrote his biography, the Harshacharita, in Sanskrit. This text provides Harsha's genealogy and details his ascension to the throne.
Xuan Zang, the Chinese pilgrim (Chapter 9), also spent time at Harsha's court and left a comprehensive account of his observations, providing valuable insights into Harsha's reign and the society of the time.
Harsha became king of Thanesar (Map 7) after the death of his father and elder brother. He inherited the kingdom of Kanauj after his brother-in-law was killed by the ruler of Bengal and subsequently led an army against Bengal.
While successful in the east, conquering Magadha and possibly Bengal, Harsha's expansion was checked in the south. He attempted to cross the river Narmada to advance into the Deccan but was stopped by **Pulakeshin II**, a ruler of the Chalukya dynasty.
The Pallavas, Chalukyas And Pulakeshin’s Prashasti
The Pallavas and Chalukyas were prominent ruling dynasties in south India during this period. The Pallava kingdom centered around their capital, Kanchipuram, extending to the Kaveri delta. The Chalukya kingdom was centered around the Raichur Doab, the fertile land between the rivers Krishna and Tungabhadra. Their capital was **Aihole**, an important trading and religious center known for its temples (Map 7).
The Pallavas and Chalukyas were frequently in conflict, often raiding each other's territories and attacking their prosperous capital cities.
The most famous Chalukya ruler was Pulakeshin II. We learn about him from a **prashasti** composed by his court poet, Ravikirti. This prashasti traces his lineage back four generations and mentions his succession to the kingdom from his uncle. Ravikirti's composition describes Pulakeshin's military expeditions along both the west and east coasts and highlights his successful check on Harsha's advance southwards. A wordplay in the poem notes that after his defeat, Harsha (meaning happiness) was no longer 'Harsha'. Pulakeshin also attacked the Pallava king, who sought refuge within the walls of Kanchipuram.
However, the Chalukya victory was temporary. Both the Pallavas and Chalukyas were eventually succeeded by new powerful dynasties, the Rashtrakutas and Cholas (who will be studied in Class VII).
Kings in earlier periods, such as Gautamiputra Shri Satakarni of the Satavahanas (Chapter 9), also tried to control coastal areas to benefit from lucrative maritime trade.
How Were These Kingdoms Administered?
The administration of these new kingdoms shared some similarities with earlier periods but also featured new developments. As before, land revenue remained a crucial source of income for the rulers, and the village continued to be the basic unit of administration.
New administrative arrangements were introduced to secure the support of powerful men within the kingdoms, who held influence through economic, social, political, or military strength:
- Hereditary Posts: Some important administrative positions became hereditary, meaning sons automatically succeeded their fathers in these roles. For example, the poet Harishena held the position of **maha-danda-nayaka** (chief judicial officer), a post his father also held.
- Multiple Offices: Individuals sometimes held several offices simultaneously. Harishena, for instance, was a maha-danda-nayaka, a **kumar-amatya** (important minister), and a **sandhi-vigrahika** (minister of war and peace).
- Influence in Local Administration: Important figures likely had a significant say in local governance. These included prominent figures like the **nagarashreshthi** (chief banker/merchant), the **sarthavaha** (leader of merchant caravans), the **prathama-kulika** (chief craftsman), and the head of the **kayasthas** (scribes).
While these policies helped kings gain support, they also enabled some powerful men to eventually grow strong enough to establish their own independent kingdoms.
A New Kind Of Army
These kingdoms maintained armies comprising elephants, chariots, cavalry (horse soldiers), and foot soldiers, similar to earlier periods. However, a new development was the emergence of military leaders who were not paid regular salaries. Instead, they were granted **land** as a form of payment. These leaders, known as **samantas**, collected revenue from the land grants. This revenue was used to maintain soldiers and horses and provide necessary equipment for warfare. The samantas provided troops to the king whenever needed. A drawback of this system was that when the ruler became weak, the samantas often attempted to assert their independence.
Assemblies In The Southern Kingdoms
Inscriptions from the Pallava kingdom in south India mention various **local assemblies** that played a role in administration at the village and urban levels:
- Sabha: An assembly of brahmin landowners. This assembly functioned through subcommittees responsible for local matters such as irrigation, agricultural operations, road construction, and managing local temples.
- Ur: A village assembly found in areas where the landowners were not brahmins.
- Nagaram: An organization of merchants, likely involved in the administration of urban areas or trading centers.
These local assemblies were probably controlled by wealthy and influential landowners and merchants. Many of these assemblies continued to operate for several centuries, indicating a degree of local self-governance alongside the central administration of the kingdom.
Ordinary People In The Kingdoms
Insights into the lives of ordinary people in these kingdoms can be gained from plays and other accounts. The playwright Kalidasa, known for his works depicting life in the king's court, provides glimpses into societal norms. An interesting aspect of his plays is the use of language: the king and most brahmins speak Sanskrit, while women and men other than the king and brahmins use Prakrit, reflecting the social hierarchy and language usage of the time. Kalidasa's famous play, Abhijnana Shakuntalam, includes a story that illustrates the treatment of ordinary people.
A Fisherman Finds A Ring
In Kalidasa's play, a poor fisherman finds a valuable ring that belonged to the king but was swallowed by a fish. When he attempts to return the ring to the palace, the gatemen accuse him of theft, and the chief police officer treats him rudely. However, the king, upon recognizing the ring, is pleased and rewards the fisherman. The police officer and gatemen then demand a share of the reward and accompany the fisherman to celebrate. This story depicts how ordinary people, even when honest, could face suspicion and mistreatment from authorities, although the king's reward and the officials' subsequent actions also show aspects of the system, albeit potentially influenced by the reward.
Comparing this situation to today, it raises questions about how a poor person finding and reporting a valuable item to the police would be treated, suggesting potential continuities or changes in the interaction between ordinary citizens and law enforcement over time.
A famous man who taught in Prakrit was the Buddha (Chapter 6), and Ashoka (Chapter 7) was a king who issued inscriptions in Prakrit.
The Chinese pilgrim Fa Xian also observed the social structure and the plight of those considered 'untouchables'. He noted that they were forced to live outside the cities and villages. To warn others of their presence and avoid physical contact, they would strike a piece of wood when entering a town or market place. Hearing the sound, people would know to keep their distance, highlighting the severe social exclusion and discrimination faced by this group.
The King’s Army
Banabhatta's account in the Harshacharita provides a vivid description of King Harsha's army on the move, illustrating its immense size and impact on the areas it traversed. The army was accompanied by a vast amount of equipment beyond weapons, including daily necessities like pots, pans, furniture, and food supplies (animals, vegetables, spices), transported on carts and pack animals like camels and elephants.
Musicians playing drums, horns, and trumpets accompanied the army, adding to the spectacle and perhaps helping to coordinate movement. Villagers along the route were expected to provide hospitality and supplies, bringing gifts like curds, gur, and flowers, and providing fodder for the animals. Villagers also attempted to meet the king to present their complaints and petitions.
However, the army's movement also caused significant disruption and destruction. Elephants could trample villagers' huts, and the noise and tumult could scare away oxen used by merchant caravans, leading to losses. Banabhatta's description emphasizes the overwhelming scale of the army's passage and the dust it raised, signifying its disruptive impact on the landscape and the lives of ordinary people.
Elsewhere
Looking at other contemporary regions provides comparison. Arabia (Map 6, pages 76-77), though largely a desert, was a central hub for communications and trade routes for centuries, particularly for sea trade between India and Europe, with Arab merchants and sailors playing a key role. The Bedouins, pastoral tribes relying on camels, inhabited the desert regions.
Around 1400 years ago, Prophet Muhammad introduced Islam in Arabia. Islam, like Christianity, emphasizes the equality and unity of all before God (Allah). The sacred book of Islam is the Quran. Within a hundred years, Islam spread rapidly to North Africa, Spain, Iran, and reached India. Arab sailors familiar with coastal settlements likely brought the new religion, and Arab soldiers conquered Sind (present-day Pakistan) around 1300 years ago. Map 6 shows potential sea and land routes for this spread.
Imagine
This section prompts an imaginative exercise to describe the scene and activities in one's village as King Harshavardhana's army prepares to visit, based on Banabhatta's account of the army on the move and the villagers' interactions.
Let’s Recall
This section contains questions to check recall of key facts from the chapter, including true/false statements, filling in blanks about Mauryan administration, identifying authors, and describing changes in the army and administrative arrangements.
Let’s Discuss
This section includes questions designed to encourage discussion and critical analysis, such as evaluating the qualifications of Samudragupta based on his prashasti, considering whether ordinary people could understand prashastis, and discussing the impact of wars on ordinary people's lives, linking historical context to contemporary issues.
Let’s Do
This section suggests activities for creative engagement and self-reflection, including constructing a personal genealogy and issuing hypothetical commands, drawing parallels to historical rulers and family structures.
Keywords
This section lists important terms introduced in the chapter:
- prashasti
- Aryavarta
- Dakshinapatha
- genealogy
- hereditary officer
- samanta
- assembly
- nagaram
Some Important Dates
This section provides a timeline of key periods and events mentioned in the chapter, helping to establish chronological context:
- Beginning of the Gupta dynasty: about 1700 years ago (founded by Chandragupta I).
- The rule of Harshavardhana: about 1400 years ago.